Nutrition Guide

CELSR1 was shown to be required for the normal polarized position of kinocilia to one side of hair cells of the mouse inner ear.[8]

Plasmin also known as is an important enzyme (EC 3.4.21.7) present in blood that degrades many blood plasma proteins, most notable, fibrin clots. The degradation of fibrin is termed fibrinolysis. In humans, the plasmin protein is encoded by the PLG gene.[1]

Glucocorticoids bind to the cytosolic glucocorticoid receptor (GR). This type of receptor is activated by ligand binding. After a hormone binds to the corresponding receptor, the newly-formed receptor-ligand complex translocates itself into the cell nucleus, where it binds to glucocorticoid response elements (GRE) in the promoter region of the target genes resulting in the regulation of gene expression. This process is commonly referred to as transactivation.[1]

The proteins encoded by these upregulated genes have a wide range of effects including for example:[1]
anti-inflammatory – lipocortin I and p11/calpactin binding protein
increased gluconeogenesis – glucose-6-phosphatase and tyrosine aminotransferase

As a food ingredient or additive, phytosterols have cholesterol-lowering properties (reducing cholesterol absorption in intestines).[1] Phytosterols occur naturally in small quantities in vegetable oils, especially sea buckthorn oil (1640mg/100g oil),[2] corn oil (968mg/100g),[3] and soybean oil (327mg/100g oil).[4] One such phytosterol complex, isolated from vegetable oil, is cholestatin, composed of campesterol, stigmasterol, and brassicasterol, and is marketed as a dietary supplement. Sterols can reduce cholesterol in human subjects by 10% to 15%.[5]

The mechanism behind phytosterols and the lowering of cholesterol occurs as follows: the incorporation of cholesterol into micelles in the gastrointestinal tract is inhibited, decreasing the overall amount of cholesterol absorbed (see cholesterol absorption inhibitor). This may in turn help to control body total cholesterol levels, as well as modify HDL, LDL and TAG levels. Many margarines, butters, breakfast cereals and spreads are now enriched with phytosterols and marketed towards people wishing to lower their cholesterol levels.

Researchers in Uruguay who conducted a small case cohort study suggested an association between dietary sterol intake and decrease risk for the development of gastrointestinal cancers; [6]; however, a subsequent large-scale study from the Netherlands reported that high dietary intake of plant sterols was not associated with a lower risk of colon and rectal cancers.[7]

Caution about phytosterols is warranted. The main health concern are atherosclerosis and the vulnerable plaques which produce heart attacks, stroke, and other cardiovascular and cerebrovascular events. Evidence does not exist that lowering total blood cholesterol levels by any means is healthy, and there are no large clinical trials which verify the efficacy of phytosterols in reducing heart attack rates. Furthermore, there is some evidence that phytosterols can promote atherosclerosis, particularly in susceptible individuals.[8]. A 2008 study conducted in Finland showed that sterols can accumulate in heart valves, suggesting that dietary sterols might increase the risk of aortic valve stenosis.[9]

The FDA has approved the following claim for phytosterols: “Foods containing at least 0.4 gram per serving of plant sterols, eaten twice a day with meals for a daily total intake of at least 0.8 gram, as part of a diet low in saturated fat and cholesterol, may reduce the risk of heart disease.”*

To date, more than 20 clinical studies on the effects of phytosterols on cholesterol have been conducted. One study published in Food Technology indicated that consuming two grams of phytosterols daily could slash the risk of heart disease by 25% (Hicks 2001). Another study published in the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition revealed that phytosterols interfered with cholesterol absorption by 33% to 42% (Mattson 1982).

Neuroprotectins are hormones which protect the central nervous system from injury.

Neuroprotectins A and B are bicyclohexapeptides.[1]

Neuroprotectin D is a docosanoid.[2]

Most commonly occurring saturated fatty acids are:
Butyric (butanoic acid): CH3(CH2)2COOH or C4:0
Valeric (pentanoic acid): CH3(CH2)3COOH or C5:0
Caproic (hexanoic acid): CH3(CH2)4COOH or C6:0
Caprylic (octanoic acid): CH3(CH2)6COOH or C8:0
Capric (decanoic acid): CH3(CH2)8COOH or C10:0
Lauric (dodecanoic acid): CH3(CH2)10COOH or C12:0
Myristic (tetradecanoic acid): CH3(CH2)12COOH or C14:0
Palmitic (hexadecanoic acid): CH3(CH2)14COOH or C16:0
Stearic (octadecanoic acid): CH3(CH2)16COOH or C18:0
Arachidic (eicosanoic acid): CH3(CH2)18COOH or C20:0
Behenic (docosanoic acid): CH3(CH2)20COOH or C22:0
Lignoceric (tetracosanoic acid): CH3(CH2)22COOH or C24:0
Cerotic (hexacosanoic acid): CH3(CH2)24COOH or C26:0

Methyl cellulose is also used in the manufacture of vegetarian capsules in nutritional supplements, its edible and non-toxic properties provide a safe alternative to the use of gelatin.

Zinc proteinate is the final product resulting from the chelation of zinc with amino acids and/or partially hydrolyzed proteins. It is used as a nutritional animal feed supplement formulated to prevent and/or correct zinc deficiency in animals. Zinc proteinate can be used in place of zinc sulfate and zinc methionine.

In 1983, the United States Mint began minting pennies made primarily of zinc and only coated in copper. With the new zinc pennies, there is the added potential for zinc toxicosis which can be fatal. One reported case of cronical ingestion of 425 pennies (over 1 kg of zinc) ended fatale due to gastrointestinal bacterial and fungal sepsis, while the patient, who ingested 12 gramms of zinc, only showed lethargy and ataxia (gross lack of coordination of muscle movements).[58]Several other cases are reported in that humans suffered zinc intoxicationby the ingestion of zinc coins. [59][60]

Pennies and other small coins are sometimes ingested by dogs resulting in the need for medical treatment to remove the foreign body. The zinc content of some coins is adds the problem of zinc toxicity, which is commonly fatal in dogs where it causes a severe hemolytic anemia, also liver or kidney damage, vomiting and diarrhea are possible symptoms.[61][62][63] In pet parrots zinc is highly toxic and poisoning can often be fatal[64].

Even though zinc is a very essential requirement for a healthy body, excess zinc can be harmful. Excessive absorption of zinc can also suppress copper and iron absorption. The free zinc ion in solution is highly toxic to plants, invertebrates, and even vertebrate fish. The Free Ion Activity Model (FIAM) is well-established in the literature, and shows that just micromolar amounts of the free ion kills some organisms. A recent example showed 6 micromolar killing 93% of all Daphnia in water.[55]

The free zinc ion is also a powerful Lewis acid up to the point of being corrosive. Stomach acid contains hydrochloric acid, in which metallic zinc dissolves readily to give corrosive zinc chloride. Swallowing a post-1982 American one cent piece (97.5% zinc) can cause damage to the stomach lining due to the high solubility of the zinc ion in the acidic stomach.[56]

There is evidence of induced copper deficiency at low intakes of 100–300 mg Zn/d. The USDA RDA is 15 mg Zn/d. Even lower levels, closer to the RDA, may interfere with the utilization of copper and iron or to adversely affect cholesterol.[57].

There is also a condition called the zinc shakes or “zinc chills” that can be induced by the inhalation of freshly formed zinc oxide formed during the welding of galvanized materials.